Showing posts with label 沃勒斯坦双周评论. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 沃勒斯坦双周评论. Show all posts

Wednesday, April 1, 2009

阿-巴:奥巴马的战争

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第254号

2009年4月1日

阿-巴:奥巴马的战争


阿-巴是美国政府弄出来称呼阿富汗-巴基斯坦的新缩写词。其含义是,美国有一个地缘政治问题,美国在此问题上打算推行的战略同时涉及两个国家,两国不能分开来考虑。美国通过向这两个国家任命一个“特别代表”理查德·霍尔布鲁克[Richard Holbrooke]来强调这项政策。

派美国军队去阿富汗的是乔治·W. 布什。首先推行用美国无人机轰炸巴基斯坦境内政策的也是乔治·W.布什。但是,在进行了“认真的政策评估”后,现在巴拉克·奥巴马也采纳了这两个政策,这 就变成了奥巴马的战争。这并不令人极其意外,因为在总统竞选中奥巴马表示他会做这些事。显然,他现在这样做了。

这个决策日后很可能被看作奥巴马美国外交政策的最重大决策,未来历史学家会注意到它在其声誉上留下的印记。这也很可能被看作他最严重的一个错误。因为,正如副总统拜登在该问题的内部政策辩论中明确警告的那样,它很可能成为一个泥潭,要想从中脱身并不比越南战争容易。

这就产生了两个问题。为什么他这样做了?这在他当政期间有可能造成什么后果?

我们先来分析他自己对他为什么这样做的解释。他说,“局势越来越危险”,“阿富汗的未来与其邻国巴基斯坦的未来密不可分”,而与阿富汗接壤的巴基斯坦 “边境地区,对美国人民来说,已成为世界上最危险的地方”。

为什么如此危险?非常简单,这是由 于它是基地组织“训练恐怖分子”、“策划袭击”的避风港,其袭击不仅针对阿富汗和美国,而且针对世界各国。打击基地组织不再称“反恐战争”了,但很难看出 有什么区别。奥巴马宣称,布什政府失去了其“重点”,而他目前已经制定了“新的总战略”。简言之,在这件事上,奥巴马会比布什干的好。

那么,新的因素是什么?美国将向阿 富汗派更多军队—1万7千名作战部队和4千阿富汗军队的培训员。它将提供更多的资金。它提议在五年之内每年向巴基斯坦提供15亿美元用于“建立学校、道路 和医院”。它提议派“农业专家和教员,工程师和律师”到阿富汗“发展经济,使之不受违法毒品左右。”简言之,奥巴马说,他相信“反对极端主义的运动只靠子 弹和炸弹不能获胜。”

然而,虽未明言但与布什不同的是, 这不会是向这两个政府开出的一张“空白支票”。“巴基斯坦必须表明它承担在本国境内清除基地组织和暴力极端分子的义务。”至于阿富汗,美国“将争取与阿富 汗政府达成一个新协定来打击腐败行为。”阿富汗和巴基斯坦两国政府都乐于得到更多资源。它们还没有表示它们将满足奥巴马的条件。而奥巴马也没有说,如果两 国政府不满足他的条件他将采取什么行动。

至于前进道路问题,奥巴马宣称,“ 没有与宿敌的和解就没有和平。”和解?原来,并不是与“死硬的塔利班核心”或基地组织和解,而是与“受胁迫或为了赚钱而拿起武器的”塔利班分子和解。要做 到这一点,奥巴马希望得到帮助。他提议建立一个新的“接触组织”,不仅包括“我们的北约盟国”,而且包括“中亚国家、海湾国家和伊朗、俄国、印度和中国。 ”

这项重要承诺最惊人的一面是它在全世界激起的热情竟如此稀少。在美国,它得到了新保守派残余和麦凯恩的欢迎。迄今,其他政客和媒体都保持缄默。伊朗、俄国和中国也并未随风起舞。他们对与所谓温和塔利班分子实行和解的想法尤其不感冒。《卫报》和《麦克拉奇》[McClatchy]都报道说,塔利班方面的反应是,他们在迄今四分五裂的队伍内部形成了团结—大概与奥巴马想要实现的目前相反。

那么,六个月后可能出现什么情况? 美国将有更多的军队驻扎在阿富汗,而美国指挥官们可能会说,奥巴马派去2万1千人还不够。更多的北约军队将从那里撤出--伊拉克场景的重复。在巴基斯坦将 出现更多或许范围更广的轰炸,结果整个国家将产生甚至更激烈的反美情绪。巴基斯坦政府不会去打击塔利班,至少出于三个原因。巴基斯坦军队中依然非常有影响 的情报部门事实上支持塔利班。军队其他部分存在着冲突,而且也可能原本就难以胜任这个工作。政府不会真的迫使他们完成更多任务,因为这只能加强其主要竞争 政党,后者反对采取这类行动,而结果有可能是另一场军事政变。

简言之,奥巴马提出的“明确而又集 中的目标”--“破坏、瓦解和打败在巴基斯坦和阿富汗的基地组织,并防止他们未来在两国卷土重来”—很可能比以前更难以实现。问题是,到那时奥巴马能做什 么?他可以“坚持到底”(类似拉姆斯菲尔德在伊拉克的做法),不断升级派遣军队的承诺,同时更换当地政治领导人(类似肯尼迪/约翰逊和吴庭艳在越南的做 法),或者,他可以掉头逃跑并撤出来(如同美国最终在越南所做的那样)。他不会由于其中任何一个选择而得到赞扬。

我的印象是,奥巴马以为他的讲话给自己留下了某些活动空间。我认为他反倒会发现,他未来的可行性选择将是多么有限。因此我认为,他犯下了一个巨大的、很可能是不可弥补的错误。

[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Sunday, March 15, 2009

美国发生内战?

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第253号

2009年3月15日

美国发生内战?

我们正在习惯于各种禁忌被打破的现象。世界媒体都在讨论银行“国有化”是否是个好主意。不是别人,正是艾伦·格林斯潘这位纯市场资本主义的超级自由主义信徒艾茵·兰德[Ayn Rand]的门生最近谈到,每隔一百年我们必须把银行国有化,而目前或许正是这样的时刻。保守的共和党参议员林赛·格雷厄姆[Lindsay Graham]同意他的看法。左翼凯恩斯主义者艾伦·布林德[Alan Blinder]讨论了这个观点的利弊。尽管他认为弊大于利,但他仍愿在《纽约时报》上撰文以期引起知识界的进一步探讨。

听到这些极端保守的名士们提出国有化建议后,我们现在又听到有人认真讨论美国发生内战的可能性。反共意识形态的使徒、卡特总统的国家安全顾问兹比格纽·布热津斯基2月17日在一个早间电视谈话节目中显身,他被请来谈谈他曾经提到的问题,即随着世界经济的崩溃美国发生阶级冲突的可能性。

布热津斯基说,他担心出事,因为可能会有“千百万失业者面临可怕的困境”,这些人已经认识到,“巨大财富转向极少数人的这种现象在美国是史无前例的。”

他提醒听众说,1907年发生大规模银行危机的时候,大金融家约翰·皮尔庞特·摩根[J.P. Morgan]把一群富有的金融家请到他家,把他们锁在自己书房不准离去,直到他们统统掏钱设立了一个基金来稳定银行。布热津斯基说:“有钱阶级今何在?那些赚了成亿美元的人为什么不做点什么?”

布热津斯基说,如果他们不能自觉自愿地做点什么,“阶级之间的冲突将会增加,而如果人们失业了并真正受到了伤害,不瞒你说,甚至有可能发生暴动!”

欧洲有个叫做 LEAP/Europe的机构,它每月向自己的客户即政客、公职人员、工商界和投资人士发布保密的“全球欧洲预期报告”,几乎就在同时,它的2月份报告也 专门讨论了全球地缘政治混乱问题。该报告描绘的不是一幅美景。它讨论了在欧洲、美国和日本发生内战的可能性。它预测将出现一场“普遍恐慌”,导致冲突或半内战。

专家们有一些建议:“如果你的国家或地区是容易获得大量枪支的地方,如果可能的话,你最好还是…离开这个地方。”这些国家中唯一符合容易获取大批枪支这种描述的就是美国。LEAP/Europe的领导人弗兰克·比昂盖里[Franck Biancheri]指出,“美国民间有2亿支枪,社会暴力已经通过团伙活动得到展现。”撰写该报告的专家声称,已经有美国人正在向欧洲移民,因为欧洲是“人身危险很小的地方”。

如果说,布热津斯基希望美国出现另一个摩根来强迫“有钱”阶级觉醒,那么,LEAP/Europe的报告则把20国集团4月2日的伦敦会议看作“最后一个机会”,条件是与会各国能拿出一份“大胆而有说服力的”计划。

这些分析并非来自左翼知识分子或激进社会运动。它们是严肃的分析人士公开表达的恐惧,这些人属于美国和欧洲现存体制的上层。只有这类人确实害怕的时候,语言上的禁忌才会被打破。打破禁忌的含义是要采取重大的紧急行动—类似于1907年摩根把金融家们锁到自己家里的举动。

在1907年倒是更容易些。

[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Sunday, March 1, 2009

瓜德罗普:理解世界危机的暗匙

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm


伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国译)

评论第252号

2009年3月1日

瓜德罗普:理解世界危机的暗匙


瓜德罗普是加勒比海上的一个小岛,规模相当于大伦敦地区或美国艾奥瓦州。其人口大约为40万人。世界媒体几乎从不提及它。1月20日以来,它成了一个持续性大罢工的地方,罢工竟然让10%的人口走上了大街,这肯定是一个世界纪录。罢工被称为Liyannaj Kont Profitasyon (LKP),从克里奥耳语[Creole]翻译过来就是“集体反对‘利润化’(或畸高的利润)”。



LKP是31个工会、政党和文化组织的集合体,它代表了几乎整个文职部门。领导来自UGTG,这是一个独立地方工会,在最近的工会选举(法国官方体制下叫做élections prud'hommales)中获得了多数票。



LKP向4类群体发布了一份126项要求的清单,即法国三级政府(中央政府、大区和省)加上雇主。大多数要求涉及经济问题。但正如负责法国海外领土的法国部长逸夫・杰格[Yves Jego]所说,这些经济要求的后面是一场“社会”危机。这是用客气的方式说,罢工不仅关乎面包和黄油。它还是一场意义深远的反殖民运动。正是这种组合,使这个世界不起眼的小地方正在发生的事情成了理解我们当前面临的世界危机的一把钥匙。

瓜德罗普或许在今天默默无闻,但它却是1493年哥伦布首次踏足此地以来资本主义世界经济的一个重要地标。17和18世纪,它成为世界制糖业主要中心之一,与海地一样,它也是法国财富的一个宝贵来源。当然,甘蔗种植园使用从非洲进口的奴隶劳动,而原住民人口已经被赶尽杀绝了。

1763年,在法国和英国就结束七年战争的巴黎条约进行谈判时,一个主要问题就是法属加拿大和瓜德罗普的命运。英国人在战争中从法国手中夺取了这两个地方,但他们同意可以只要其中之一,无论选中那个。在当时,两国都认为小小的瓜德罗普是一份厚奖,是世界财富的一个重要来源。相反,加拿大相形见绌,伏尔泰曾将其贬低为不过是"quelques arpents de neige"(几英亩积雪)。

正是由于瓜德罗普如此可贵,英国才决定保留加拿大。英属西印度群岛的甘蔗种植园主不希望有竞争。此外,英国政府还想在加拿大驻军上节省经费,他们认为,如果法国人不再涉足他们就能做到。

法国革命给法国的加勒比海领地带来了动荡,主要是在海地和瓜德罗普。这两个领土上都发生了奴隶起义。在这两个领土上,法国种植园主都惊恐万状,特别是法国1794年结束了奴隶制之后。种植园主转求英国来拯救他们。在这两个领土上,法国都赶走了英国人,彻底镇压了起义,并这个过程中恢复了奴隶制。但是,与海地不同,瓜德罗普仍保留为法国殖民地。一切照旧进行。

后来到了1848年,法国又发生了一场革命。又一次结束了奴隶制,其伟大的领导者是临时政府的一位部长维克托·舍尔歇[Victor Schoelcher]。就像1863年美国的林肯一样,舍尔歇通过法令废除了奴隶制,因为他知道他得不到立法机构的赞同票。但这一次,从法律上废除奴隶制没有遭到撤消,尽管舍尔歇曾任部长的临时政府为一个远为保守的政府所取代。

奴隶制在瓜德罗普(如同在别处一样)被取缔了,但随后在几乎一个世纪里经济中的变化极小。种植园仍然生产蔗糖,白人园主仍然获取利润,从前的奴隶仍然得到非常微薄的报酬。更糟的是,他们可怜的报酬对种植园主来说还是过于昂贵,于是他们部分地被亚洲进口的新劳工所取代。失业变成普遍现象,并一直持续到今天。

1945年之后,随着世界各地反殖民运动的发展,法国政府把瓜德罗普变成了一个海外省,大致与宗主国各省同等。但在经济上,他们比以前更依赖巴黎的施舍。制糖业枯竭了土地,旅游贸易变成了新的经济基础。瓜德罗普人生活在这样一种经济中,他们的报酬大大低于宗主国法国的标准,而生活成本却要高出许多,因为进出口为白人拥有的几个大型半垄断公司所控制。

这就是引发了双重爆炸的原因—反对 “利润化”和反对仍然被视为事实上的奴隶制。瓜德罗普人想要什么?他们清单上的首先第一项要求是给最低工资收入者加上领养老金的人员每月增加200欧元。鉴于罢工的能量,他们或许有可能得到这200欧元,尽管遭到了大雇主的拼命反对。这些雇主被要求在200欧元中出50欧元,但他们只肯出10欧元。法国政府可能会强迫雇主参与满足这项要求,尽管可能不涉及一长串其他要求。

但“社会”危机是怎么回事?追求尊严的反殖民运动一个历史方式就是要求正式独立。在瓜德罗普,民众运动一直没有提出这一要求。他们看到世界上以及首先自己周边独立国家的实际权力有限。海地的命运没有吸引力。但他们确实希望看到意义深远的社会转化--结束少数白人的社会和经济权力,建立实现平等化的具体形式。

在世界性经济灾难中把经济要求与“社会”要求结合起来,这就是在发起一场威力巨大的旋风。这种旋风是几个富国对几家银行实现几场国有化所完全阻止不了的。迄今,瓜德罗普(以及其他各地)在自己的抗议活动中一直相对平和。但旋风总有办法变得更加猛烈。


[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Monday, February 16, 2009

经济灾难的政治透视

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第251号

2009年2月15日

经济灾难的政治透视

我每天都读到一个又一个经济学家、记者或政府官员谈论如何在这个或那个国家最快实现经济复苏。不消说,开出的药方总是相互冲突。但几乎所有这些权威人士,在我看来,都好似身处太虚幻境。他们真的似乎相信,自己的药方在相对短的时间内就能发挥作用。

事实是,世界只不过处于衰退的开端,衰退将持续相当长时间,并将变的比现在糟得多。政府眼下的问题不是如何复苏,而是如何在它们无一例外面对民众日益愤怒的情况下保全自己。

让我们从当前的经济现实谈起。全世 界几乎所有各方--从政府、企业到个人--近10-30年来都在依靠借债寅吃卯粮。膨胀的收入和膨胀的消费让世人晕头转向。泡沫必然破灭。这个泡沫现在就 破灭了(或者说,事实上好几个泡沫破灭了)。这条道路的不可能持续性开始深入人心,顷刻间大家都如惊弓之鸟,担心自己的现金就要花光,包括政府、企业和个 人。

恐惧占了上风,这时,人们停止花钱,或停止放贷。花费和放贷大幅度下降,企业停止生产或生产减速。它们要彻底关门歇业,或至少解雇工人。这是一个恶性循环,因为关门歇业或解雇工人导致实际需求降低,使人们更不愿花钱或放贷。这就叫衰退和通货紧缩。

目前,仍然能够借钱和印钱的美国政 府打算把更多的钱投入流通。如果政府的投放量巨大,并且做法精明,有可能起到作用。但很有可能,它的做法并不精明。同样很有可能的是,投入能发挥作用的数 量只不过造成了另一个泡沫。那样,美元真有可能比其他货币下跌更快,从而拆毁世界经济的最后一个重要支柱。

与此同时,对世界人口90%的下层民众来说(10%上层的情况也不太美妙),用于各种日常消费的钱越来越少。民众变得骚动不安。就在上个月,我们看到越来越多国家的人们上街抗议经济困难,例如在希腊、俄罗斯、拉脱维亚、英国、法国、冰岛、中国、韩国、瓜德罗普、留尼旺岛、马达加斯加、墨西哥,以及可能还有世界媒体尚未注意到的更多国家。事实上,迄今为止抗议活动相对温和,但政府都很紧张。

在政府首先关注处理国内动荡的时候,它们做什么?它们实际上只有两个选择:向抗议者开枪,或向他们让步。开枪只在一定程度上管用。原因之一是,军队本身必须报酬优厚才愿意动手。而在经济严重低迷时期,要做到这一点对政府而言并非易事。

因此,政府开始向本国民众让步。怎 样做?首先,推行保护主义。各国都开始抱怨其他国家的保护主义。但抱怨者自身却都在推行保护主义。它们还会在这条路上走得更远。自由市场经济学家都对我们 说,保护主义使整个经济形势更加恶化。这或许不错,但在政治上却很不相干--当人们走上街头要求工作的时候,而他们现在就要!

发生动荡时政府让步的第二个方式是 采取社会民主福利措施。但要这样做,政府需要资金。政府的资金来自税收。自由市场经济学家都对我们说,在经济低迷时期提高(任何类型的)税收都会使整个经 济形势更加恶化。这或许不错,但在短期内这同样不相干。通常,在经济低迷时期,税收的收入下降。政府甚至不能维持当下的支出,还不要说为扩大的支出付费 了。因此,它们会通过某种方式征税。或者,它们会印刷钞票。

最后,它们让步的第三个方式是适量 的民粹主义。最近三十年来,无论国家之内还是整个世界,1%上层和20%底层之间的收入差距都显著扩大了。差距今后将降低得到1970年那个更“正常的” 水平上,尽管仍然非常之大,但还不太到丑闻一般的程度。由此,大家看到政府现在谈论要对银行家“收入封顶”,例如在美国和法国。或者,政府可以惩办腐败 者,例如在中国。

这有点类似于处于飓风带上。最坏的 情况可以骤然降临到政府头上。当出现这种情况时,它们只有几分钟时间躲到自己的地下室。飓风随后刮过,假如还活着,他们就出来查看破坏情况。破坏将非常惨 重。是的,人们可以重建。但那时真正的争论就开始了--关于如何重建,以及关于如何公平分享重建的利益等。

这种黯淡的图景将持续多长时间?没人知道或能够肯定,但可能会是好几年。与此同时,政府将面临大选,而选民对在现任政府不会客气。保护主义和社会民主福利对政府的用处就像飓风袭来时的地下室一样。对银行实行半国有化是躲到地下室的另一个方式。

人民需要考虑和准备的是,无论何时 当我们走出地下室的时候,我们做些什么。根本性问题是我们如何来进行重建。那才是真正的政治斗争。地形将是我们不熟悉的。所有我们以往的说辞都将受到质 疑。要认识到的关键问题是,重建可以把我们带到一个更好的世界--但也可以把我们带到一个更坏的世界。无论那种情况,它都将是一个非常不同的世界。


[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Monday, February 2, 2009

再造美国:奥巴马的含混

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第250号

2009年2月1日


再造美国:奥巴马的含混

1月20日,在美国和世界上大量民众的欢呼声中,巴拉克·奥巴马正式就任美国总统。在其就职演说中,他许诺要“重新开启再造美国的事业”。

在这个让世界媒体选来做自己通栏标 题和分析对象的短句中,奥巴马道出了他总统诺言中所有的模糊之处。这句话可以指回到先前那个更好的状态。奥巴马似乎也用另一句话表明了这种可能性,他呼吁 美国公民“选择我们更好的历史”。但是“再造”也可以指更加重大的变革,建立一个与当今世界所知的非常不一样的美国。模糊之处在于,奥巴马提出的仅仅是对 美国和世界体系的结构和制度进行小修小补,还是要从根本上改变它们。

目前大家都该清楚的是,尽管不服气 的共和党右翼恐惧到歇斯底里,美国并没有选举切·格瓦拉当它的总统。但是,尽管某些投票选他的人有这样的希望而其更不妥协的左翼批评人士有这种担忧,美国 选出的也并不是另一个罗纳德·里根。那么,美国选出的是什么?答案还不明朗,这恰恰由于作为政客的奥巴马风格。

有两个问题需要分析说明。一个是,作为总统的奥巴马真正想要成就什么。第二个是,在地缘政治现实加上世界性衰退的情况下,他有可能成就什么。副总统拜登1月25日谈到后者时提到,“非常坦率地说,它比任何人想到的都要糟,而且日甚一日。”

至此,我们对奥 巴马知道些什么呢?作为一个政治领导人,他异常聪明并受过良好教育,他也是一个泰然自若、谨慎小心并非常成功的政客。但在只希望小修小补还是进行根本性变 革的总体问题上,他究竟站在那里?很可能在这个范围中间的某个位置。也有可能,他实际能做并做到的将取决于世界体系的限制而不是他自己的选择,不管这些选 择多么明智。

到目前为止,我们已经有一些线索来评价他在以下五个领域的行动方向:全民参与、地缘政治、环境、国内社会问题和如何处理衰退。初步的判决结果有喜有忧。

很明显,他最大的亮点在全民参与上。他本人的当选就是一个标志。当然,选举一个非裔美国人总统只不过是美国1945年以来一个持续性趋势的高潮一幕--从杜鲁门总统整合军队到最高法院对废止学校种族歧视的判决,到瑟古德·马歇尔[Thurgood Marshall]被任命为大法官,到科林·鲍威尔被任命为参谋长联席会议主席,再到鲍威尔和康多莉扎·赖斯先后被任命为国务卿。当然,他的当选标志着一次突破,两年前很少有人想得到。而这一点是起作用的。

奥巴马将继续推进这种全体公民的参 与。但是,他在移民问题上面临着一个重大的政治考验。目前还没有迹象表明他会多么着力地来解决这个问题。他不得不与他自己政治基础的很大一部分进行斗争。 考虑到美国当前和预期的失业率水平,他有可能推迟采取任何行动。但这个问题不会自行消失,而只能越来越难以解决。此外,不解决这个问题对世界以更小的痛苦 度过衰退的能力将产生消极影响。

奥巴马在地缘政治姿态上的希望要小的多。以色列/巴勒斯坦冲突在目前可能是无解的。最低限度需要把哈马斯包括到谈判中来。很可能,任命乔治·米切尔[George Mitchell]为美国特使预示着要这样做。但这完全不足以实现一种可行的政治解决。以色列人在自己的掩体中固守,并没有甚至去考虑让巴勒斯坦民族主义者能够接受的任何方案。

我不怀疑,伊拉克人会让奥巴马遵守 他16个月之内撤军的许诺。我也不相信奥巴马对伊朗人除在口头上争长论短之外还会采取别的行动。但他在巴基斯坦已经开始了灾难之路,在自己就任第一周就严 重动摇了巴基斯坦政府。巴基斯坦政府是虚弱的,可能很快要垮台。假如它垮了台,奥巴马将没有可资防御的选择。

根本问题是,奥巴马还没有放弃前霸权国的夸张语言。在其就职演说中,他对世界说:“美国…淮备再次带领大家。”世界希望美国参与。世界恰恰不想要美国带领。我不认为奥巴马确实懂得这一点。巴基斯坦很可能成为他身败名裂的祸根。

另外,他在拉丁美洲也开局不良。他谈到查韦斯时哗众取宠,而更糟的是,他还没有听到卢拉总统的挑战,即除非他无条件解除对古巴的禁运,拉美不会相信他主张变革。

他在环境问题上开始采取的步骤是积极的,例如他的任命,他的总统决定,以及他对其他国家表示,美国已经准备参加科学家认为必要的集体措施。但在这个领域,正如在其他领域一样,问题依然是:他准备如何大胆和迅速地采取行动。

在国内社会问题上的政策同样喜忧参 半。奥巴马恢复了克林顿政府有关堕胎的政策,这一点把他与里根/布什的政策明确区分开来。他下令关闭关塔纳摩和中央情报局的秘密监狱,同时推迟一年做出如 何处理目前被监禁者的某些决定。他在何等程度上撤消美国国内政府侵入隐私权的大网仍然是一个完全未决的问题。他在何等程度上完成其对工会的许诺也仍然不清 楚,即取消前几任政府在工会组织能力上施加的严重限制。

最后,我们谈一下他回旋余地最小的领域,即世界性衰退。他显然准备大大扩张政府在经济中的介入。但全世界几乎所有其他政治领导人也都在这样做。他显然还准备扩大所谓社会民主措施来减少工薪阶层的经济痛苦。但全世界几乎所有其他政治领导人也都在这样做。

这里的问题同样是措施如何大胆。他已经把一伙非常谨慎的凯恩斯主义者任命到自己的所有关键岗位。他还没有把任何左翼凯恩斯主义美国经济学家包括进来,例如约瑟夫·斯蒂格利茨[Joseph Stiglitz]、保罗·克鲁格曼[Paul Krugman]、阿兰·布林德[Alan Blinder]或者詹姆斯·加尔布雷斯[James Galbraith]。他们都说,谨慎的措施没有用处,而宝贵的时间正在流逝。可能现在起一年后,奥巴马会重组自己的团队,把那些倡导要采取更大胆行动的人包括进来。但也有可能会有点晚了。

奥巴马急于让国会中的共和党人赞同 自己的经济提案。这部分是由于,用他就职演说的话说,他热情地选择“有意义的团结而非纷争和不合”。部分是由于这是聪明的政治手段,即在经济进一步恶化的 情况下他不想处于易受攻击的境地。但共和党领导层的精明足以理解这一点,并且只有大大削减其计划之后才会把票投给他。

奥巴马走出了一个十分不稳的开局。尽管他拥有智力并且认识上开放,但认为他准备推动从根本上再造美国的信心尚没有多少支撑的证据。美国得到了正确的语句。它需要的是大胆的再造。

[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Thursday, January 29, 2009

自杀编年史预告:以色列

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第249号

2009年1月15日

自杀编年史预告:以色列

以色列国在1948年5月15日午夜时分宣告了自己的独立。联合国曾投票表决要在英国治下的巴勒斯坦建立两个国家。耶路撒冷城要成为联合国管辖的国际地区。联合国决议获得了广泛支持,特别是美国和苏联的支持。阿拉伯国家则全都对它投了反对票。


以色列国建立60年来,它的生存和扩张有赖于一个由三要素构成的总体战略:强硬军事主义、地缘政治联盟和公共关系。强硬军事主义(即现任总理
埃胡德·奥尔默特[Ehud Olmert]所说的“铁腕”)来自于以色列犹太人的民族主义狂热,以及后来(尽管起初并非如此)世界各地犹太社区的强烈支持。


在地缘政治方面,以色列先是与苏联结盟(时间虽短但极其重要),随后与法国结盟(时间较长并使以色列成为核国家),最后(并且最重要地)与美国结盟。这些盟国兼后台通过供应武器给予了最重要的军事支持。但它们也给予了外交/政治支持,而美国还给予了可观的经济支持。


公共关系的目标在于获得世界舆论的广泛同情支持,早年间依靠把以色列描绘成血气方刚的大卫反抗老朽不堪的歌利亚,而后40年则依靠在二战期间纳粹大批清除欧洲犹太人问题上的罪行和怜悯。

以色列战略的所有这些要素在 1948年到1980年间都相当管用。事实上,它们变的越来越有效。但到1980年代某个时点,三个战术中每项战术的利用都开始产生反作用。以色列目前进 入了一个其战略加速衰败的阶段。以色列要推行任何其他战略可能已经太晚了,假如它这样做,它就会在地缘政治上自杀身亡。让我们回顾一下,在以色列力量成功 地上升以及在后来缓慢衰落的过程中,该战略的三个要素是如何互动的。

在以色列建立的头25年,它与阿拉 伯国家进行了4次战争。第一次是为建立犹太国而进行的1948-1949年战争。以色列宣布建立独立国家,巴勒斯坦却没有相应地也宣布建国。实际情况是, 许多阿拉伯国家对以色列宣了战。以色列最初在军事上困难重重。但是,以色列军队比外约旦以外其他阿拉伯国家的军队都更加训练有素。而且,更重要的是,他们 从代苏联行事的捷克斯洛伐克那里获得了武器。

到1949年停战时,以色列军队的 纪律性加上捷克的武器使以色列人赢得了联合国分割提议中没有包含的大片领土,包括西耶路撒冷。其他地区被周边阿拉伯国家并入。大批巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人离开或 被迫离开以色列控制的地区,变成了阿拉伯邻国里的难民,他们的后代今天仍大多生活在那里。他们曾经拥有的土地被以色列犹太人夺走了。

苏联不久就抛弃了以色列。这可能主 要是由于其领导人很快开始担心以色列建国对苏联犹太人态度的影响,从斯大林的观点看,苏联犹太人似乎过于热情,从而潜在地具有颠覆性。相应地,以色列也抛 弃了对冷战中社会主义阵营的所有同情,并清楚表明自己在政治和文化上要完全成为一个西方世界成员的热望。

法国此时正面临其三个北非殖民地的 民族解放运动,它认为以色列是一个有用的盟国。在阿尔及利亚人1954年发起自己的独立战争之后就更加如此。法国开始帮助以色列武装自己。特别是,正在 (不顾美国意愿而)发展本国核武器的法国帮助了以色列发展核武器。1956年,以色列加入法、英对埃及开战。对以色列而言,不幸的是这次战争是不顾美国反 对而发起的,美国迫使所有三个大国结束了战争。

在阿尔及利亚于1962年独立后, 法国失去了对以色列这个关系的兴趣,以色列当时干扰了法国与三个新独立的北非国家重建密切关系的努力。正是在这个时候,美国和以色列相互靠拢建立了密切关 系。1967年,埃及和以色列之间再次爆发战争,其他阿拉伯国家加入埃及一方。在这次所谓“六日战争”中,美国首次向以色列提供军用武器。

以色列1967年的胜利在很多方面 改变了基本局面。以色列轻易获胜,占领了英国托管的巴勒斯坦所有那些它已经占领的部分,再加上埃及的西奈半岛和叙利亚的戈兰高地。在司法上,此时存在着一 个以色列国,再加上以色列占领的领土。以色列开始推行在被占领土建立犹太人定居点的政策。

以色列的胜利改变了世界犹太人的态度,他们此时已经克服了对建立以色列国曾经持有的全部保留意见。他们对以色列的成就非常自豪,并开始在美国和西欧发起强大的政治运动为以色列争取政治支持。一个强调基布兹[以色列集体农场—译注]美德的血气方刚的以色列形象被放弃了,转而把强调大屠杀作为争取世界支持以色列的基本理由。

1973年,阿拉伯国家试图在所谓 赎罪日战争中扭转军事局势。这一次,在美国军事支持下,以色列又取得了战争胜利。1973年战争标志着阿拉伯国家核心作用的终结。以色列能够继续努力获得 阿拉伯国家的承认,它也确实最终得到了埃及和约旦两国的承认,但要让这一点成为保障以色列生存的方式此时已经太迟了。

正在这个时刻,一个真正的巴勒斯坦阿拉伯政治运动即巴勒斯坦解放组织(PLO)产生了,它现在是以色列的主要对手,是以色列需要与之妥协的对手。长期以来,以色列拒绝与巴解组织及其领导人亚西尔·阿拉法特打交道,而宁愿运用铁腕。起先,以色列在军事上是成功的。

铁腕政策的局限性在第一次起义[intifada]中暴露无疑,这是巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人在被占领土上的自发起义,始于1987年,持续了6年。起义的主要成果是双重的。它迫使以色列人和美国与巴解组织对话,这是一个长过程,它导致1993年达成了所谓奥斯陆协议,提出在部分被占领土上建立巴勒斯坦权力机构。

长远来看,奥斯陆协议在地缘政治上 对世界舆论的冲击不如起义重要。大卫-歌利亚形象第一次开始翻转过来。西方世界第一次开始出现对所谓两国方案的实际支持。第一次开始出现对以色列铁腕及其 对巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人所作所为的严肃批评。假如以色列原先严肃对待了以所谓“绿线”[Green Line]为基础的两国方案--即1948-1949年战争结束后的分界线,它或许已经取得了问题的解决。

但以色列总是慢一步。当它能与纳塞尔谈判的时候,它不肯谈。当它能与阿拉法特谈判的时候,它不肯谈。当阿拉法特去世而软弱无力的马哈茂德·阿巴斯继任的时候,更加好斗的哈马斯赢得了2006年巴勒斯坦议会选举。以色列拒绝与哈马斯对话。

现在,以色列入侵了加沙,试图消灭哈马斯。假如它成功,下一个出现将是什么组织?假如—这种概率更高--它没能消灭哈马斯,一个两国方案现在还有可能实现吗?巴勒斯坦和世界舆论都在转向一国方案。而这当然是犹太复国主义计划的终结。

以色列的三要素战略正在解体。铁腕 不再奏效,正像它对乔治·布什而言在伊拉克没有奏效一样。与美国的关系是否将依然牢固?我怀疑这一点。世界舆论是否会继续同情地看待以色列?看来不会。以 色列现在能不能转向不同的战略,即作为中东有机组成部分而不是欧洲前哨与巴勒斯坦阿拉伯人的军事代表进行谈判的战略?对此而言似乎为时已晚,很可能太晚 了。从而,预告了一个自杀编年史。



[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Commentary No. 249, Jan. 15, 2009

"Chronicle of a Suicide Foretold: The Case of Israel"



The state of Israel proclaimed its independence at midnight on May 15, 1948. The United Nations had voted to establish two states in what had been Palestine under British rule. The city of Jerusalem was supposed to be an international zone under U.N. jurisdiction. The U.N. resolution had wide support, and specifically that of the United States and the Soviet Union. The Arab states all voted against it.

In the sixty years of its existence, the state of Israel has depended for its survival and expansion on an overall strategy that combined three elements: macho militarism, geopolitical alliances, and public relations. The macho militarism (what current Prime Minister Ehud Olmert calls the "iron fist") was made possible by the nationalist fervor of Jewish Israelis, and eventually (although not initially) by the very strong support of Jewish communities elsewhere in the world.

Geopolitically, Israel first forged an alliance with the Soviet Union (which was brief but crucial), then with France (which lasted a longer time and allowed Israel to become a nuclear power), and finally (and most importantly) with the United States. These allies, who were also patrons, offered most importantly military support through the provision of weapons. But they also offered diplomatic/political support, and in the case of the United States considerable economic support.

The public relations was aimed at obtaining sympathetic support from a wide swath of world public opinion, based in the early years on a portrait of Israel as a pioneering David against a retrograde Goliath, and in the last forty years on guilt and compassion over the massive Nazi extermination of European Jewry during the Second World War.

All these elements of Israeli strategy worked well from 1948 to the 1980s. Indeed, they were increasingly more effective. But somewhere in the 1980s, the use of each of the three tactics began to be counterproductive. Israel has now entered into a phase of the precipitate decline of its strategy. It may be too late for Israel to pursue any alternative strategy, in which case it will have committed geopolitical suicide. Let us trace how the three elements in the strategy interacted, first during the successful upward swing, then during the slow decline of Israel's power.

For the first twenty-five years of its existence, Israel engaged in four wars with Arab states. The first was the 1948-1949 war to establish the Jewish state. The Israeli declaration of an independent state was not matched by a Palestinian declaration to establish a state. Rather, a number of Arab governments declared war on Israel. Israel was initially in military difficulty. However, the Israeli military were far better trained than those of the Arab countries, with the exception of Transjordan. And, crucially, they obtained arms from Czechoslovakia, acting as the agent of the Soviet Union.

By the time of the truce in 1949, the discipline of the Israeli forces combined with the Czech arms enabled the Israelis to win considerable territory not included in the partition proposals of the United Nations, including west Jerusalem. The other areas were incorporated by the surrounding Arab states. A large number of Palestinian Arabs left or were forced to leave areas under the control of the Israelis and became refugees in neighboring Arab countries, where their descendants still largely live today. The land they had owned was taken by Jewish Israelis.

The Soviet Union soon dropped Israel. This was probably primarily because its leaders quickly became afraid of the impact of the creation of the state on the attitudes of Soviet Jewry, who seemed overly enthusiastic and hence potentially subversive from Stalin's point of view. Israel in turn dropped any sympathy for the socialist camp in the Cold War, and made clear its fervent desire to be considered a full-fledged member of the Western world, politically and culturally.

France at this time was faced with national liberation movements in its three North African colonies, and saw in Israel a useful ally. This was especially true after the Algerians launched their war of independence in 1954. France began to help Israel arm itself. In particular, France, which was developing its own nuclear weapons (against U.S. wishes), helped Israel do the same. In 1956, Israel joined France and Great Britain in a war against Egypt. Unfortunately for Israel, this war was launched against U.S. opposition, and the United States forced all three powers to end it.

After Algeria became independent in 1962, France lost interest in the Israeli connection, which now interfered with its attempts to renew closer relations with the three now independent North African states. It was at this point that the United States and Israel turned to each other to forge close links. In 1967, war broke out again between Egypt and Israel, and other Arab states joined Egypt. In this so-called Six Day War, the United States for the first time gave military weapons to Israel.

The 1967 Israeli victory changed the basic situation in many respects. Israel had won the war handily, occupying all those parts of the British mandate of Palestine that it had occupied before, plus Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Syria's Golan Heights. Juridically, there was now a state of Israel plus Israel's occupied territories. Israel began a policy of establishing

Jewish settlements in the occupied territories.

The Israeli victory transformed the attitude of world Jewry, which now overcame whatever reservations it had had about the creation of the state of Israel. They took great pride in its accomplishments and began to undertake major political campaigns in the United States and western Europe to secure political support for Israel. The image of a pioneering Israel with emphasis on the virtues of the kibbutz was abandoned in favor of an emphasis on the Holocaust as the basic justification for world support of Israel.

In 1973, the Arab states sought to redress the military situation in the so-called Yom Kippur war. This time again, Israel won the war, with U.S. arms support. The 1973 war marked the end of the central role of the Arab states. Israel could continue to try to get recognition from Arab states, and it did succeed eventually with both Egypt and Jordan, but it was now too late for this to be a way to secure Israel's existence.

As of this point, there emerged a serious Palestinian Arab political movement, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was now the key opponent of Israel, the one with whom Israel needed to come to terms. For a long time, Israel refused to deal with the PLO and its leader Yasser Arafat, preferring the iron fist. And at first, it was militarily successful.

The limits of the iron fist policy were made evident by the first intifada, a spontaneous uprising of Palestinian Arabs inside the occupied territories, which began in 1987 and lasted six years. The basic achievement of the intifada was twofold. It forced the Israelis and the United States to talk to the PLO, a long process that led to the so-called Oslo Accords of 1993, which provided for the creation of the Palestinian Authority in part of the occupied territories.

The Oslo Accords in the long run were geopolitically less important than the impact of the intifada on world public opinion. For the first time, the David-Goliath image began to be inverted. For the first time, there began to be serious support in the Western world for the so-called two-state solution. For the first time, there began to be serious criticism of Israel's iron fist and its practices vis-à-vis the Arab Palestinians. Had Israel been serious about a two-state solution based on the so-called Green Line - the line of division at the end of the 1948-1949 war - it probably would have achieved a settlement.

Israel however was always one step behind. When it could have negotiated with Nasser, it wouldn't. When it could have negotiated with Arafat, it wouldn't. When Arafat died and was succeeded by the ineffectual Mahmoud Abbas, the more militant Hamas won the Palestinian parliamentary elections in 2006. Israel refused to talk to Hamas.

Now, Israel has invaded Gaza, seeking to destroy Hamas. If it succeeds, what organization will come next? If, as is more probable, it fails to destroy Hamas, is a two-state solution now possible? Both Palestinian and world public opinion is moving towards the one-state solution. And this is of course the end of the Zionist project.

The three-element strategy of Israel is decomposing. The iron fist no longer succeeds, much as it didn't for George Bush in Iraq. Will the United States link remain firm? I doubt it. And will world public opinion continue to look sympathetically on Israel? It seems not. Can Israel now switch to an alternative strategy, of negotiating with the militant representatives of the Arab Palestinians, as an integral constituent of the Middle East, and not as an outpost of Europe? It seems quite late for that, quite possibly too late. Hence, the chronicle of a suicide foretold.

by Immanuel Wallerstein

[Copyright by Immanuel Wallerstein, distributed by Agence Global. For rights and permissions, including translations and posting to non-commercial sites, and contact: rights@agenceglobal.com, 1.336.686.9002 or 1.336.286.6606. Permission is granted to download, forward electronically, or e-mail to others, provided the essay remains intact and the copyright note is displayed. To contact author, write: immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu.

These commentaries, published twice monthly, are intended to be reflections on the contemporary world scene, as seen from the perspective not of the immediate headlines but of the long term.]

Monday, January 19, 2009

古巴重返舞台!

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第248号

2009年1月1日

古巴重返舞台!

世界经济/金融危机似乎日甚一日,整个中东地区的政治和军事继续分崩离析,全球都在期待着奥巴马就任总统,在这一切之中,世界很少注意到2008年12月中旬的一个重大地缘政治事件。古巴重返舞台!有4次拉美国家会议在巴西巴伊亚州萨尔瓦多 [Salvador de Bahía]先后举行。按出席国家的数量排序,这些会议是南美共同市场[Mercosur]会议,南美国家组织[Unasur]会议,里约集团[the Grupo de Río]会议,以及拉丁美洲和加勒比海地区第一届高峰会议(西班牙语缩写为CALC)。这些会议的主持人是巴西总统路易斯·伊纳西奥·卢拉·达席尔瓦[Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva],而“主角”则是古巴。卢拉称之为一场“意识形态飓风”。

让我们看看发生了什么。南美共同市场是巴西、阿根廷、乌拉圭和巴拉圭的共同市场协议,委内瑞拉正在加入进来。五国总统已经宣布,他们将吸收玻利维亚的全部出口产品,因为美国在9月份撤消了该国的优惠关税,表面的理由是玻利维亚没有尽力打击毒品买卖。

这一行动得到了 南美国家组织的支持,这个组织是南美全部12个国家(加上作为观察员的墨西哥和巴拿马)的联盟。更重要的是,南美国家组织同意了巴西的提议,即成立“南美 防御委员会”。仅在去年5月份南美国家组织还曾搁置了这个提议(美国对该提议表示不悦),为此,巴西外交部长塞尔索 阿莫林[Celso Amorim]认为这个决定是“意外惊喜”。他说,这体现了拉丁美洲是拉丁美洲人的拉丁美洲的思想,这与“美洲是美洲人的美洲”的门罗主义口号针锋相对。

然而,真正重要的事件出现在12月16日里约集团会议上。里约集团是1986年建立的拉美政治论坛,到2008年已拥有22个国家,在这次会议上,该集团“一致同意”接受古巴为成员国。作为本届会议主席的墨西哥总统费利佩·卡尔德龙[Felipe Calderón]在全场起立欢呼声中欢迎劳尔·卡斯特罗为代表的古巴“兄弟人民”。论坛随即谴责美国对古巴的禁运,并要求美国必须结束禁运。

卡尔德龙和卡斯特罗举行了私下会见,以便解决卡尔德龙的前任文森特·福克斯[Vicente Fox]所造成的两国关系中的“棘手问题”。会后,卡斯特罗说,现在的关系“非常之好”。两人宣布,他们在2009年将正式进行互访。

达到高潮的会议是拉丁美洲和加勒比海地区所有33国总统的高峰会议,这在历史上是首次。只有三位总统本人没有与会,但借故另外派了人来,他们是哥伦比亚的阿尔瓦罗·乌里韦[Alvaro Uribe]、秘鲁的阿兰·加西亚[Alan García]和萨尔瓦多的埃利亚斯·安东尼奥·萨卡[Elias Antonio Saca],他们是美国在拉丁美洲最后的坚定朋友。巴西非常希望尽可能多的人与会,以至派出了军用飞机把较穷的中美洲和加勒比海国家的总统空运到会场。

这次会议的意义要看被排除在外的国家。无论美国还是以前的殖民大国西班牙和葡萄牙都没有受到邀请。厄瓜多尔总统拉斐尔·科雷亚[Rafael Correa]说,会议标志着 “傀儡政府” 在拉丁美洲结束了。巴西记者佩佩·埃斯科巴[Pepe Escobar]把它叫做“向奥巴马潜艇发射的一枚水雷”。

这次会议的开会时间并不是偶然的。美洲第五次高峰会议计划于4月份在特立尼达召开。这是克林顿总统1994年发起成立的一个组织。同一批国家和政府的首脑将受到邀请,只不过多了两个国家即美国和加拿大,少了一个国家即古巴。

据说,奥巴马将 在那里面对巴西会议上提出的问题和提议。第一要撤消暂停古巴在美洲国家组织中成员资格的决定,从而把古巴包括进来。卢拉表示,为了改善古巴和美国的关系, 恰恰是美国必须解除禁运从而迈出第一步。第二是重审尚未清偿的国家债务。厄瓜多尔已经宣布延缓进一步偿付债务,说是在偿还了28年债务之后,它仍然欠着同 样数量的债务—这是一个“悲惨的故事”,如科雷亚总统所说。

卡斯特罗说,他 准备与奥巴马直接会谈。“如果他想讨论,我们愿意讨论。要孤立古巴越来越难了。”卢拉挑战奥巴马事实上走得更远。他说,只有在他撤销对古巴封锁的时候,其 总统任期才能真正具有历史意义。与此同时,曾经作为美国后院的拉丁美洲越来越对其他世界大国开放。俄国、中国和伊朗都显著扩大了它们在拉丁美洲的作用。

最近加入进来的是法国。尼古拉·萨科齐总 统于12月22-23日对巴西进行了正式访问。两国不但同意扩大商业往来,而且同意扩大非常重要的军事往来。法国今后将帮助巴西海军建造5艘“新一代”潜 艇,其中包括一艘核动力潜艇,这是拉丁美洲第一艘这样的潜艇。此外,法国同意向巴西转让必要技术,从而,未来巴西能够依靠自身力量建造更多潜艇。法国还将 帮助巴西建造所谓重型直升机,巴西打算成为这类飞机的出口国。

古巴的球、厄瓜多尔的球以及巴西的球现在都到了奥巴马场内。到4月份他必须让我们知道他将如何回应。

[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Commentary No. 249, Jan. 15, 2009

"Chronicle of a Suicide Foretold: The Case of Israel"



The state of Israel proclaimed its independence at midnight on May 15, 1948. The United Nations had voted to establish two states in what had been Palestine under British rule. The city of Jerusalem was supposed to be an international zone under U.N. jurisdiction. The U.N. resolution had wide support, and specifically that of the United States and the Soviet Union. The Arab states all voted against it.

In the sixty years of its existence, the state of Israel has depended for its survival and expansion on an overall strategy that combined three elements: macho militarism, geopolitical alliances, and public relations. The macho militarism (what current Prime Minister Ehud Olmert calls the "iron fist") was made possible by the nationalist fervor of Jewish Israelis, and eventually (although not initially) by the very strong support of Jewish communities elsewhere in the world.

Geopolitically, Israel first forged an alliance with the Soviet Union (which was brief but crucial), then with France (which lasted a longer time and allowed Israel to become a nuclear power), and finally (and most importantly) with the United States. These allies, who were also patrons, offered most importantly military support through the provision of weapons. But they also offered diplomatic/political support, and in the case of the United States considerable economic support.

The public relations was aimed at obtaining sympathetic support from a wide swath of world public opinion, based in the early years on a portrait of Israel as a pioneering David against a retrograde Goliath, and in the last forty years on guilt and compassion over the massive Nazi extermination of European Jewry during the Second World War.

All these elements of Israeli strategy worked well from 1948 to the 1980s. Indeed, they were increasingly more effective. But somewhere in the 1980s, the use of each of the three tactics began to be counterproductive. Israel has now entered into a phase of the precipitate decline of its strategy. It may be too late for Israel to pursue any alternative strategy, in which case it will have committed geopolitical suicide. Let us trace how the three elements in the strategy interacted, first during the successful upward swing, then during the slow decline of Israel's power.

For the first twenty-five years of its existence, Israel engaged in four wars with Arab states. The first was the 1948-1949 war to establish the Jewish state. The Israeli declaration of an independent state was not matched by a Palestinian declaration to establish a state. Rather, a number of Arab governments declared war on Israel. Israel was initially in military difficulty. However, the Israeli military were far better trained than those of the Arab countries, with the exception of Transjordan. And, crucially, they obtained arms from Czechoslovakia, acting as the agent of the Soviet Union.

By the time of the truce in 1949, the discipline of the Israeli forces combined with the Czech arms enabled the Israelis to win considerable territory not included in the partition proposals of the United Nations, including west Jerusalem. The other areas were incorporated by the surrounding Arab states. A large number of Palestinian Arabs left or were forced to leave areas under the control of the Israelis and became refugees in neighboring Arab countries, where their descendants still largely live today. The land they had owned was taken by Jewish Israelis.

The Soviet Union soon dropped Israel. This was probably primarily because its leaders quickly became afraid of the impact of the creation of the state on the attitudes of Soviet Jewry, who seemed overly enthusiastic and hence potentially subversive from Stalin's point of view. Israel in turn dropped any sympathy for the socialist camp in the Cold War, and made clear its fervent desire to be considered a full-fledged member of the Western world, politically and culturally.

France at this time was faced with national liberation movements in its three North African colonies, and saw in Israel a useful ally. This was especially true after the Algerians launched their war of independence in 1954. France began to help Israel arm itself. In particular, France, which was developing its own nuclear weapons (against U.S. wishes), helped Israel do the same. In 1956, Israel joined France and Great Britain in a war against Egypt. Unfortunately for Israel, this war was launched against U.S. opposition, and the United States forced all three powers to end it.

After Algeria became independent in 1962, France lost interest in the Israeli connection, which now interfered with its attempts to renew closer relations with the three now independent North African states. It was at this point that the United States and Israel turned to each other to forge close links. In 1967, war broke out again between Egypt and Israel, and other Arab states joined Egypt. In this so-called Six Day War, the United States for the first time gave military weapons to Israel.

The 1967 Israeli victory changed the basic situation in many respects. Israel had won the war handily, occupying all those parts of the British mandate of Palestine that it had occupied before, plus Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Syria's Golan Heights. Juridically, there was now a state of Israel plus Israel's occupied territories. Israel began a policy of establishing

Jewish settlements in the occupied territories.

The Israeli victory transformed the attitude of world Jewry, which now overcame whatever reservations it had had about the creation of the state of Israel. They took great pride in its accomplishments and began to undertake major political campaigns in the United States and western Europe to secure political support for Israel. The image of a pioneering Israel with emphasis on the virtues of the kibbutz was abandoned in favor of an emphasis on the Holocaust as the basic justification for world support of Israel.

In 1973, the Arab states sought to redress the military situation in the so-called Yom Kippur war. This time again, Israel won the war, with U.S. arms support. The 1973 war marked the end of the central role of the Arab states. Israel could continue to try to get recognition from Arab states, and it did succeed eventually with both Egypt and Jordan, but it was now too late for this to be a way to secure Israel's existence.

As of this point, there emerged a serious Palestinian Arab political movement, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was now the key opponent of Israel, the one with whom Israel needed to come to terms. For a long time, Israel refused to deal with the PLO and its leader Yasser Arafat, preferring the iron fist. And at first, it was militarily successful.

The limits of the iron fist policy were made evident by the first intifada, a spontaneous uprising of Palestinian Arabs inside the occupied territories, which began in 1987 and lasted six years. The basic achievement of the intifada was twofold. It forced the Israelis and the United States to talk to the PLO, a long process that led to the so-called Oslo Accords of 1993, which provided for the creation of the Palestinian Authority in part of the occupied territories.

The Oslo Accords in the long run were geopolitically less important than the impact of the intifada on world public opinion. For the first time, the David-Goliath image began to be inverted. For the first time, there began to be serious support in the Western world for the so-called two-state solution. For the first time, there began to be serious criticism of Israel's iron fist and its practices vis-à-vis the Arab Palestinians. Had Israel been serious about a two-state solution based on the so-called Green Line - the line of division at the end of the 1948-1949 war - it probably would have achieved a settlement.

Israel however was always one step behind. When it could have negotiated with Nasser, it wouldn't. When it could have negotiated with Arafat, it wouldn't. When Arafat died and was succeeded by the ineffectual Mahmoud Abbas, the more militant Hamas won the Palestinian parliamentary elections in 2006. Israel refused to talk to Hamas.

Now, Israel has invaded Gaza, seeking to destroy Hamas. If it succeeds, what organization will come next? If, as is more probable, it fails to destroy Hamas, is a two-state solution now possible? Both Palestinian and world public opinion is moving towards the one-state solution. And this is of course the end of the Zionist project.

The three-element strategy of Israel is decomposing. The iron fist no longer succeeds, much as it didn't for George Bush in Iraq. Will the United States link remain firm? I doubt it. And will world public opinion continue to look sympathetically on Israel? It seems not. Can Israel now switch to an alternative strategy, of negotiating with the militant representatives of the Arab Palestinians, as an integral constituent of the Middle East, and not as an outpost of Europe? It seems quite late for that, quite possibly too late. Hence, the chronicle of a suicide foretold.

by Immanuel Wallerstein

[Copyright by Immanuel Wallerstein, distributed by Agence Global. For rights and permissions, including translations and posting to non-commercial sites, and contact: rights@agenceglobal.com, 1.336.686.9002 or 1.336.286.6606. Permission is granted to download, forward electronically, or e-mail to others, provided the essay remains intact and the copyright note is displayed. To contact author, write: immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu.

These commentaries, published twice monthly, are intended to be reflections on the contemporary world scene, as seen from the perspective not of the immediate headlines but of the long term.]

Monday, December 15, 2008

巴基斯坦:奥巴马的噩梦

费尔南德·布罗代尔中心

纽约州宾汉顿大学,美国

Fernand Braudel Center, Binghamton University

http://fbc.binghamton.edu/commentr.htm

伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦

(路爱国 译)

评论 第247号

2008年12月15日

巴基斯坦:奥巴马的噩梦

2008年11月26日,一个10人小团体袭击了(印度)孟买市中心的两个豪华酒店和其他地点,在几天之内打死打伤众多人员,并给该市造成了巨大的物质破坏。花了几天时间才终结了这场屠杀。人们广泛相信,袭击是一个叫做“虔诚军”[Lashkar-e-Taiba (LET)]的巴基斯坦组织所为,这个组织的动机据说与基地组织类似,也许与之直接有关。世界媒体立即把孟买的杀戮称为印度的9/11,是基地组织2001年对美国袭击的翻版。

2001年,无论美国政府还是分析 人士都从根本上误解了基地组织在2001年的动机和战略。同样的事情目前有再次发生的危险。基地组织在2001年当然试图羞辱美国。但从战略观点上看,这 不过是个次要动机。基地组织一向明确表示,其首要目标是重新建立伊斯兰哈里发帝国。而且,作为一项政治战略,它认为沙特阿拉伯和巴基斯坦政府的垮台是必要 的第一步。基地组织认为,这两个政府是西方(主要是美国)在大中东地区实行政治支配的主要政治支持者,从而是重建哈里发帝国的最大的障碍,该帝国最初的地 理位置当然会在这个地区。

9/11袭击可以看作是试图让美国政府采取某些政治行动,这些行动能对沙特和巴基斯坦政府形成压力,从而破坏它们的政治稳定。美国政府2001年之后在该地区采取的主要行动—先是入侵阿富汗后又入侵伊拉克—肯定符合了基地组织的预期。结果如何呢?

沙特政府以高度的政治技巧做出了反 应,它抵挡着从内部削弱自己的美国压力,到目前为止把基地组织在沙特阿拉伯的政治成功降到了最低限度。巴基斯坦政府远没有那么成功。伊斯兰堡的政权在 2008年比其前任在2001年时要虚弱得多,而基地组织一类团体的政治力量却在不断上升。孟买袭击似是进一步削弱巴基斯坦国家的一种努力。当然,“虔诚军”希望伤害印度及其所谓盟国,即美国、英国和以色列,但这是一个次要的目标。主要目标是把巴基斯坦政府赶下台。

就像世上任何国家一样,巴基斯坦的 政治精英也是民族主义的,他们追求扩大本国的地缘政治利益。这个目标与基地组织一类团体的目标是根本不同的,对后者来说,一个国家唯一合法的职能就是推动 重建哈里发帝国。西方世界坚持拒绝理解这一区别是基地组织依然有力的一个主要来源。这正是会把巴基斯坦变成奥巴马噩梦的问题所在。

巴基斯坦的地缘政治利益何在?首 先,它对自己的主要邻国即印度和阿富汗忧心忡忡。这种担忧造就了其最近60年的地缘政治战略。巴基斯坦寻找强大的盟友以对付印度。在历史上它找到了两个, 即美国和中国。美中支持巴基斯坦出于一个简单的原因,即遏制印度。在这两国看来,印度在地缘政治上与苏联的关系过于亲密,而美中都与苏联处于冲突之中。

在1990年代,随着冷战结束和俄 国地缘政治地位暂时削弱,美国和中国都试探与印度建立更密切的关系。从地缘政治上说,印度比巴基斯坦的地位更显赫,巴基斯坦也明白这一点。巴基斯坦回应的 方式之一是,通过支持塔利班最终成功地接管阿富汗,扩大自己在该国(以及在控制该国中)的作用。

2001年后发生了什么?美国入侵 了阿富汗,推翻了塔利班,扶持了一个政府上台,该政府中有亲美、亲俄、甚至亲伊朗的成员,但完全没有亲巴基斯坦的成员。与此同时,随着核能新协议的签署, 美国和印度的关系变得更加密切。所以,巴基斯坦政府对在阿富汗接壤的西北部落地区的塔利班力量复兴视而不见。那里的塔利班团体在基地组织团体的支持下,重 新开展了在阿富汗的军事行动,需要指出的是,还获得了相当的成功。

美国对此非常不满,它逼迫巴基斯坦 军队从军事上打击这些塔利班/基地组织团体,它自己也在这个地区进行了直接(但秘而不宣)的军事行动。巴基斯坦政府发现自己陷入了进退维谷的境地。它从来 没有多大能力去控制部落地区的事务。在美国政府压力下所做的努力又进一步削弱了它自己。但它的效率低下使美国军队的行动甚至更加直接,这导致甚至在历史上 最亲美的精英中间也出现了严重的反美情绪。

奥巴马能做什么?派兵进去?反对谁呢?巴基斯坦政府本身?据说,美国政府特别关注巴基斯坦拥有的核武库。美国政府要夺取这个武库?在这方面采取任何行动—竞选期间奥巴马曾卤莽地暗示采取这类行动—将让伊拉克大败局变成小事一桩。它将导致奥巴马的国内目标必败无疑。

无所作为是不可接受的软弱—对他提 出这样建议的人肯定不少。这是奥巴马唯一的选择吗?清楚的是,正如他自己所说的那样,要实现其议程,就要摆脱美国在中东没有尽头而地缘政治上又毫无所获的 行动。伊拉克容易对付,因为伊拉克人会坚持让美国撤军。阿富汗更困难一些,但达成一项政治交易并非没有可能。伊朗可以进行谈判。以色列/巴勒斯坦冲突目前 无法解决,奥巴马所能做的或许无非是让局势继续恶化。

但是,巴基斯坦需要一项决策。巴基斯坦政府要存在下去,它就必须是一个能显示自己维护本国地缘政治利益的政府。考虑到国内局势以及愤怒的印度舆论,这将非常不易。这也正是奥巴马能够明智地采取行动的地方。

[伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦(Immanuel Wallerstein)版权所有,Agence Global负责发行。有关版权和授权,包括翻译和张贴到非商业网站事宜,请与rights@agenceglobal.com、1.336.686.9002或1.336.286.6606联系。在不改动本评论和展示版权所有条件下,允许下载、电子转发或通过电子邮件发送他人。如欲与作者联系,可发邮件给immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu。

每月两次发表的这些评论,旨在从长时段而不是当前头条新闻的角度,对当今世界变化做出反应。]

Commentary No. 249, Jan. 15, 2009

"Chronicle of a Suicide Foretold: The Case of Israel"



The state of Israel proclaimed its independence at midnight on May 15, 1948. The United Nations had voted to establish two states in what had been Palestine under British rule. The city of Jerusalem was supposed to be an international zone under U.N. jurisdiction. The U.N. resolution had wide support, and specifically that of the United States and the Soviet Union. The Arab states all voted against it.

In the sixty years of its existence, the state of Israel has depended for its survival and expansion on an overall strategy that combined three elements: macho militarism, geopolitical alliances, and public relations. The macho militarism (what current Prime Minister Ehud Olmert calls the "iron fist") was made possible by the nationalist fervor of Jewish Israelis, and eventually (although not initially) by the very strong support of Jewish communities elsewhere in the world.

Geopolitically, Israel first forged an alliance with the Soviet Union (which was brief but crucial), then with France (which lasted a longer time and allowed Israel to become a nuclear power), and finally (and most importantly) with the United States. These allies, who were also patrons, offered most importantly military support through the provision of weapons. But they also offered diplomatic/political support, and in the case of the United States considerable economic support.

The public relations was aimed at obtaining sympathetic support from a wide swath of world public opinion, based in the early years on a portrait of Israel as a pioneering David against a retrograde Goliath, and in the last forty years on guilt and compassion over the massive Nazi extermination of European Jewry during the Second World War.

All these elements of Israeli strategy worked well from 1948 to the 1980s. Indeed, they were increasingly more effective. But somewhere in the 1980s, the use of each of the three tactics began to be counterproductive. Israel has now entered into a phase of the precipitate decline of its strategy. It may be too late for Israel to pursue any alternative strategy, in which case it will have committed geopolitical suicide. Let us trace how the three elements in the strategy interacted, first during the successful upward swing, then during the slow decline of Israel's power.

For the first twenty-five years of its existence, Israel engaged in four wars with Arab states. The first was the 1948-1949 war to establish the Jewish state. The Israeli declaration of an independent state was not matched by a Palestinian declaration to establish a state. Rather, a number of Arab governments declared war on Israel. Israel was initially in military difficulty. However, the Israeli military were far better trained than those of the Arab countries, with the exception of Transjordan. And, crucially, they obtained arms from Czechoslovakia, acting as the agent of the Soviet Union.

By the time of the truce in 1949, the discipline of the Israeli forces combined with the Czech arms enabled the Israelis to win considerable territory not included in the partition proposals of the United Nations, including west Jerusalem. The other areas were incorporated by the surrounding Arab states. A large number of Palestinian Arabs left or were forced to leave areas under the control of the Israelis and became refugees in neighboring Arab countries, where their descendants still largely live today. The land they had owned was taken by Jewish Israelis.

The Soviet Union soon dropped Israel. This was probably primarily because its leaders quickly became afraid of the impact of the creation of the state on the attitudes of Soviet Jewry, who seemed overly enthusiastic and hence potentially subversive from Stalin's point of view. Israel in turn dropped any sympathy for the socialist camp in the Cold War, and made clear its fervent desire to be considered a full-fledged member of the Western world, politically and culturally.

France at this time was faced with national liberation movements in its three North African colonies, and saw in Israel a useful ally. This was especially true after the Algerians launched their war of independence in 1954. France began to help Israel arm itself. In particular, France, which was developing its own nuclear weapons (against U.S. wishes), helped Israel do the same. In 1956, Israel joined France and Great Britain in a war against Egypt. Unfortunately for Israel, this war was launched against U.S. opposition, and the United States forced all three powers to end it.

After Algeria became independent in 1962, France lost interest in the Israeli connection, which now interfered with its attempts to renew closer relations with the three now independent North African states. It was at this point that the United States and Israel turned to each other to forge close links. In 1967, war broke out again between Egypt and Israel, and other Arab states joined Egypt. In this so-called Six Day War, the United States for the first time gave military weapons to Israel.

The 1967 Israeli victory changed the basic situation in many respects. Israel had won the war handily, occupying all those parts of the British mandate of Palestine that it had occupied before, plus Egypt's Sinai Peninsula and Syria's Golan Heights. Juridically, there was now a state of Israel plus Israel's occupied territories. Israel began a policy of establishing

Jewish settlements in the occupied territories.

The Israeli victory transformed the attitude of world Jewry, which now overcame whatever reservations it had had about the creation of the state of Israel. They took great pride in its accomplishments and began to undertake major political campaigns in the United States and western Europe to secure political support for Israel. The image of a pioneering Israel with emphasis on the virtues of the kibbutz was abandoned in favor of an emphasis on the Holocaust as the basic justification for world support of Israel.

In 1973, the Arab states sought to redress the military situation in the so-called Yom Kippur war. This time again, Israel won the war, with U.S. arms support. The 1973 war marked the end of the central role of the Arab states. Israel could continue to try to get recognition from Arab states, and it did succeed eventually with both Egypt and Jordan, but it was now too late for this to be a way to secure Israel's existence.

As of this point, there emerged a serious Palestinian Arab political movement, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which was now the key opponent of Israel, the one with whom Israel needed to come to terms. For a long time, Israel refused to deal with the PLO and its leader Yasser Arafat, preferring the iron fist. And at first, it was militarily successful.

The limits of the iron fist policy were made evident by the first intifada, a spontaneous uprising of Palestinian Arabs inside the occupied territories, which began in 1987 and lasted six years. The basic achievement of the intifada was twofold. It forced the Israelis and the United States to talk to the PLO, a long process that led to the so-called Oslo Accords of 1993, which provided for the creation of the Palestinian Authority in part of the occupied territories.

The Oslo Accords in the long run were geopolitically less important than the impact of the intifada on world public opinion. For the first time, the David-Goliath image began to be inverted. For the first time, there began to be serious support in the Western world for the so-called two-state solution. For the first time, there began to be serious criticism of Israel's iron fist and its practices vis-à-vis the Arab Palestinians. Had Israel been serious about a two-state solution based on the so-called Green Line - the line of division at the end of the 1948-1949 war - it probably would have achieved a settlement.

Israel however was always one step behind. When it could have negotiated with Nasser, it wouldn't. When it could have negotiated with Arafat, it wouldn't. When Arafat died and was succeeded by the ineffectual Mahmoud Abbas, the more militant Hamas won the Palestinian parliamentary elections in 2006. Israel refused to talk to Hamas.

Now, Israel has invaded Gaza, seeking to destroy Hamas. If it succeeds, what organization will come next? If, as is more probable, it fails to destroy Hamas, is a two-state solution now possible? Both Palestinian and world public opinion is moving towards the one-state solution. And this is of course the end of the Zionist project.

The three-element strategy of Israel is decomposing. The iron fist no longer succeeds, much as it didn't for George Bush in Iraq. Will the United States link remain firm? I doubt it. And will world public opinion continue to look sympathetically on Israel? It seems not. Can Israel now switch to an alternative strategy, of negotiating with the militant representatives of the Arab Palestinians, as an integral constituent of the Middle East, and not as an outpost of Europe? It seems quite late for that, quite possibly too late. Hence, the chronicle of a suicide foretold.

by Immanuel Wallerstein

[Copyright by Immanuel Wallerstein, distributed by Agence Global. For rights and permissions, including translations and posting to non-commercial sites, and contact: rights@agenceglobal.com, 1.336.686.9002 or 1.336.286.6606. Permission is granted to download, forward electronically, or e-mail to others, provided the essay remains intact and the copyright note is displayed. To contact author, write: immanuel.wallerstein@yale.edu.

These commentaries, published twice monthly, are intended to be reflections on the contemporary world scene, as seen from the perspective not of the immediate headlines but of the long term.]